Advice on essay and research writing

©Denis Hayes, May 2008

The following advice is offered on the understanding that the project that you are undertaking has accompanying explanatory notes about the specific requirements that relate to the particular piece of work you are being asked to produce. Consult them carefully!

 

Deciding a title:

 

Bad titles often lead to bad essays. Inappropriate titles frustrate readers. Expect to modify your title (perhaps several times) before you finalise it. Make the title plain and informative rather than subtly worded or lyrical. Try to keep it under about 15 words in length.

 

General advice:

 

§  Aim to embark on a detailed and engaging project that grips the reader’s interest and attention.

§  Do not be tempted to make premature claims without evidence or decide what you intend to find before you have found it out!

§  Make an appraisal of the worth of another author’s viewpoint in the light of its usefulness rather than your emotional response to it; even if you do not agree with a viewpoint, you can acknowledge its existence and (perhaps) merit.

§  Keep raising “Why?” and “Yes, but…” questions in your mind about what you have written and claimed.

§  Be transparent: say why you have done things a certain way; acknowledge the limitations of your work; be true to yourself.

 

Preface/Abstract

 

·        Begin with some vivid or compelling (but not exaggerated) opening sentences that make your reader alert and alive to the issues you will explore.

·        Tell the reader what the project is about and (briefly) how the thesis, article, paper or dissertation is structured.

·        In an abstract, summarise your main argument(s) and findings.

·        In a preface, include clauses such as: “I hope to discover …” or “I will advance the proposition that …” or “This research seeks to illuminate…” or “This essay will help to establish that…” or “I intend to show that…”

 

Structuring the work

Think of the work like following a forest trail:

§  Check the map beforehand and find out about the area (context/previous work)

§  Go to the starting point (introduction/motivation for doing the work)

§  Be alert to the signposts indicating stages of the walk (structure/informing the reader)

§  Observe the features and diversity of the countryside (descriptions/ dilemmas/ surprises/ challenges)

§  Reflect on where you have been and what you have seen (analysis)

§  Consider how far you’ve travelled (summary/conclusions)

§  Think about next steps (further research/recommendations/implications)

 

The Introduction

 

§  Introduce the topic and state why the topic is important

§  Highlight areas that merit further exploration…which you will address with reference to themes and issues that other authors have raised

NB It’s not the number of authors you quote but the depth of your understanding and significance of their work

§  If you have not done so in a preface, say how the assignment/ thesis/ article etc will be structured

§  Give the reader a ‘taste’ of what follows but don’t show all your cards!

NOTE: The introduction should be amended last, when you know what follows. Always make such amendments your final task before submission.

 

Literature review

 

·        Other than in exceptional cases, there is always too much literature to handle, so be selective

·        Don’t pretend to understand complex ideas that actually baffle you!

·        Explain what an author believes or found or claims in your own words as much as possible, rather than finding a ‘good’ quote or two and using them out of context

·        Refer to the possible implications of your literature search for the present study

·        In some instances it is appropriate to use a ‘model’ that an author has published to explain a phenomenon as a vehicle for your own research. After conducting your research you can make suggestions about how the model could or should be modified, its limitations, usefulness, and so forth

·        Make particular note of contrasting views about the same issue

 

Analysis of data

 

§  Data is always ‘partial’, so you can only make claims on the basis of what you have found—not what you would like, ideally, to have found.

§  Approach your findings in one of 2 ways: (1) Take comments, extracts, observations, documentation and build a hypothesis; or (2) State your tentative hypothesis first and see the extent to which it can be supported or has to be modified in the light of your findings

§  Regardless of how you analyse the data (software/highlighter/extracting key words and phrases…), acknowledge its limitations

§  Analysis is not a mechanical process…always keep in mind your research question and how your own beliefs, bias, assumptions etc may have affected the outcome

 

Utilising data

 

·        Don’t just describe what you have found.  Draw out issues; link them to the literature and to wider debates.

·        Point out contrasts and similarities between your findings and the findings of others.

·        Use your findings to establish the strength or weakness of arguments/ perspectives.

 

Presenting arguments:

 

Use the categories from the analysis as a framework for your arguments

 

Allow your ‘voice’ to emerge as you present your arguments: show the tensions within arguments; evaluate them; weigh them up and tell the reader how you have reached a decision.

 

·        Take great care over the way that you phrase things: “It would appear that…” or “The evidence tends to support…” or “There is little evidence from findings to…”

·        Do NOT say ‘it is obvious that’ unless it most certainly IS obvious to the reader that…!

 

Identify contrasts – between two or more ways of considering an argument or issue

§  What are the different perspectives on this issue? A situation is rarely clear-cut. Even statistical data are open to interpretation.

 

In making claims

§  What evidence supports them? Where are they still tentative?

 

 

In advancing your claims use expressions such as:

 

§  This argument is supported by …

§  My assumptions have taken account of…

§  Another way of viewing this evidence is… 

§  These claims are tentative in as much as …

§  However, nevertheless, yet, and yet, conversely, in spite of, even so…

§  The proposition is strengthened/confirmed by …

 

Making connections with other work:

Refer back to key literature. Other work may provide a backdrop for, or confirm or oppose or illuminate your claims. Don’t just use work that supports your findings/hypothesis

Use expressions such as:

§  This perspective is given weight by Bloggin’s study about…

§  In the same way, Bloatworth (2004) suggests that …

§  Ticklebottom (2006) argues in a similar vein; thus:

§  Equivalent findings are drawn from the work of…

§  There is overwhelming support for this stance in ...

§  Zhivago (1999) is not alone in adopting this view …

 

But also, perhaps…

·        My findings contrast sharply with those of Cluedo (2003) who…

·        Gerty’s original hypothesis is not supported by data from this present study…

·        My research findings shed some light on the merit of the differing views expressed by Scooby-Doo (1994) and Tophat (2000) about the effectiveness of the technique in as much as…

 

Writing a conclusion:

The main parts of a conclusion consist of:

 

1.   Restating the main premise

2.   Accurately summarising the arguments that you have employed

3.   Referring to your literature review or key references/theories

4.   Suggesting ways forward and areas to be further explored

5.   Depending on the research area, you may also want to offer implications for practice

 

And in a PhD thesis: What is new and distinctive about your findings?

 

Using quotations (quotes)

 

Always introduce and discuss quotes; be explicit about how the quote supports or conflicts with the arguments you are advancing or examining.

When introducing quotations use a variety of verbs rather than constantly repeating ‘says’; for example:

 

Suggests

Insists

Observes

States

Claims                          

Reveals

Argues

Writes

Points out

Concludes

Notes

Maintains

 

 

 

 

Are you sure you’ve got the apostrophe in the correct place?!