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This study component has three principal purposes:

1. To help you sharpen your presentational skills.
2. To offer some advice about preparing a paper.
3. To suggest strategies for successfully presenting a paper.

The component is structured as follows:

• Introduction
• Structuring a talk (overview)
• Types of presentation
• Clarity of speech
• Preparing the talk
• Engaging the audience
• Dealing with questions and comments
• Postscript
• Appendix 1: Links to websites
• Appendix 2: Useful texts
• Appendix 3: What the experts say (Peter Woods and Harold Silver)

INTRODUCTION

Many who enjoy academic discourse and happily talk to friends and colleagues about their education research and propositions, find the process of presenting a paper to an audience to be a daunting prospect. The anxiety associated with giving a paper is so acute for some people that they will do anything to avoid it. Others, after agreeing to do so, fret and worry for weeks in anticipation of the event. Yet others, much less fearful, feel dissatisfied after their presentation, aware of their shortcomings and the limited impact that their words appear to have had. The hours of preparation, expenditure of mental energy and (in some cases) many miles of travel, can dissipate in the modest surroundings of a institution seminar room, attended by a handful of enthusiasts. Is it all worth it!

On the other hand, a successful presentation, even to a small number of people, can bring immense satisfaction and a sense of a job well done. The fact that an intelligent and well-informed audience is listening intently to what you have to say, interested in the subject matter and anxious to probe your ideas more fully, makes all the effort seem worthwhile.

Most of us who have listened to a paper being presented will have stories to tell of a speaker who was stimulating, witty and persuasive, and of ideas that nestled firmly in the head for a long time after the talk. An effective presentation, on a relevant topic, can act as a spur to action, realign thinking and stimulate creativity. Regrettably, most of us have also had the opposite experience. Presentations have been tedious, poorly delivered, irrelevant or, worst of all, a recycling of familiar material dressed up in obfuscated jargon or contrived enthusiasm. If there has been a Chair of Proceedings at such events, he or she has had the unenviable job of thanking the presenter for the ‘interesting and thought-provoking talk’ or similar platitudes, and invited questions from the bemused audience. Sometimes, the question time has been the only useful part of the session. After the agony is over, you may have been amongst the first to escape from the suffocating atmosphere and thankfully gulped down the fresh air of freedom.

Of course, the above scenarios are distorted stereotypes. Most presentations are acceptably good, but no better. Most speakers are reasonably interesting but not outstanding. Most topics are fairly relevant but unlikely to influence future practice directly. Most issues are quite persuasive but not life-transforming. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the more effective the presentation, the more worthwhile the time and effort becomes, both for the presenter and the audience.

Terminology

A ‘paper’ is normally defined as a formally written piece of work that derives from research or scholarly investigations. Subsequently, the contents of the paper may be shared with an audience. This process is commonly referred to as ‘giving a paper’. A ‘presentation’ tends to be used as a more general term to cover any situation in which ideas are shared with an audience. The ideas do not necessarily have to derive from research or scholarly activity but may incorporate material relevant for such diverse purposes as teaching students and job interviews.

For the purpose of this component, however, the word ‘paper’ and ‘presentation’ will be used interchangeably. The process of expressing ideas orally will be referred to simply as ‘giving a talk’. Although what is contained within the component will have relevance for all public speaking contexts, it is targeted more specifically at a setting in which ideas and insights are being shared with colleagues, rather than a teaching context in which there is a master to pupil/apprentice relationship.

The information in this component is not for the purpose of learning how to use (say) PowerPoint or distance-conferencing, though it is worth bearing in mind that technology can be extremely useful to support your talk and disseminate your findings. The principles that underpin an effective presentation apply to every situation. Sometimes, however, it will not be possible to attend a conference in person. There are other methods of presenting ‘at a distance’ which, though not as good as actually being there, can be almost as effective. The two main methods are:

• Videoconferencing
• Video streaming using the internet

Giving a conference paper usually serves one or more of three purposes:

1. It gives you an opportunity to order your thinking in a logical way.
2. It allows for dissemination of your ideas and findings.
3. It acts as a rehearsal prior to the publication for a journal or chapter in a book.

If the prospect of giving a paper is daunting, you may find some consolation in the fact that it serves other purposes than the immediate sharing of ideas with a select audience and can act as a stepping stone to new opportunities. In particular, it gives you the chance to reflect on the process and use this as a spur to improving the clarity of your thinking and subsequent talks and publications.

Fundamental points

It is worth giving some close attention to the following points before searching the rest of the component:

• There is a difference between the spoken and written word. Your paper is initially written down; now you have to present it through speech. The printed word may not translate smoothly into the spoken word.
• Although there is a difference between monologue and dialogue, it is possible to present a paper in such a way that the members of the audience feel that they are involved in the process. This can be promoted by the use of rhetorical questions, asking the audience to consider key points and maintaining good eye contact and an ‘open’ body position.
• You have to decide whether you are principally giving facts and information, raising questions, offering alternatives, analysing data, interrogating assumptions, offering hypotheses, or a combination of several of these elements.
• However carefully you have prepared your talk, the impact will be reduced if you neglect basic public speaking skills, such as clarity, variation in tone, projection and speed of delivery.
• Although nearly everyone feels nervous before presenting a paper, there are ways of reducing anxiety and bringing it under control. This relies principally on three things. First, that you are confident about your material and have prepared thoroughly. Second, that you use simple relaxation techniques before and during the talk. Third, that all the practicalities have been sorted beforehand (procedures, resources, timings).
• The context in which you give your talk makes a difference to the style of presentation. Both physical conditions (such as room size) and the nature of the audience (numbers, expectations) are significant.
• Careful consideration over the appropriate use of terminology is essential. For instance, there is little point in using sophisticated terms with an audience of lay persons, who will either become bored, frustrated or mesmerised. On the other hand, a well-informed and knowledgeable audience will become restless or feel patronised if you avoid using core words and expressions. As a rule, if you intend using some key terms and are unsure whether the audience knows them, it is a good idea to spend a couple of minutes explaining your interpretation of them and the sense in which you intend to use them.
• Some papers are solely for the purpose of exploring the meanings of key terms or research methods. It would, for instance, be appropriate to spend some time exploring the use of difficult methodological terms such as ‘ethnomethodology’ or ‘symbolic interactionism’, offer your own interpretation of their relevance and explain their relevance to your research. However, even basic terms may need some explanation. For example, it is easy to assume that the audience has a shared understanding of common words when, in fact, you are using them in a specific sense.
• An audience can become irritated when a speaker litters a talk with obtuse terms, without any form of explanation. They suspect that you are actually unsure of your subject and are attempting to conceal their ignorance by using mystifying language. They may be right!
• An audience needs to be reassured that the speaker is confident, in command of the subject and not about to dissolve! The audience will make up its mind about such matters within the first two minutes.
• You may wish to have copies of your paper available. If so, it is generally preferable to distribute it after the session rather than before, unless you need to make explicit use of the material with the audience.
• Research is principally for the purpose of extending our knowledge of an area. If your paper is more of a review of other people’s work or a straightforward evaluation of a project over which you had no control, it cannot strictly be referred to as research.
• A research paper, as opposed to a position paper or a commentary on events, should contain some information about previous studies, relevant theories or theoretical positions and research methodology. Unless the paper is for the specific purpose of exploring these elements, they should be summarised rather than elaborated. On the other hand, the audience will want to know where your research fits into the overall pattern of studies, what motivated you to carry out the work, what methods you employed and what you discovered.

Practicalities

1. Clarify with the organiser the title of your paper and the structure of the time at your disposal.

2. Make sure that you check the location of the room, the availability of equipment and the layout of furniture.

3. If you are travelling a distance, allow for delays, checking in to the location and at least an hour to recover from the journey.

4. Arrive in the room at least ten minutes before the commencement of the talk.

5. Have your sheets or cards numbered clearly (in case you drop them!).

6. Check that the equipment is working and have a contingency plan in case it isn’t.

7. Take care that your clothes and apparel do not distract the audience or pull tightly around your neck.

8. Practise opening your eyes wide and relaxing your face (to look pleasant and alert) before people arrive.

STRUCTURING A TALK (overview)

See also PREPARING THE TALK.

It goes without saying that all talks must have a start, beginning and end! However, with the time pressures on speakers, it is easy to over-run and end up with a hasty summary that does not do justice to your paper and may spoil its impact.

In a 25-minute talk, the 'introduction' should last for a maximum of five minutes and inform the audience of at least five things:

• The subject of the paper
• Its genesis
• A mention of significant previous work in the area
• What you were attempting to achieve through the research
• A summary of the research methods used, problems encountered, preliminary findings and unresolved issues

Especially in the opening moments of a talk, nerves can be a problem for some people and cause them to say silly things. Avoid making negative comments or joking remarks that unsettle your listeners, such as:

'Well, let’s get this thing over with...'

'I’m not sure how this is going to go down with you...'

'You’ll have to forgive me if I seem in a muddle, today has been a nightmare.'

'Instead, begin positively and give the audience confidence that you know what you are doing:'

'I’ve really been looking forward to this opportunity to share with you some ideas about what I believe to be the single most important issue...'

'This evening I want to look closely at one of the greatest challenges for practitioners, namely, the way in which they...'

'The question that I want to help resolve this morning is one that I’m certain we have all faced at some time in our professional lives.'

The main body of the talk is likely to take about 20 minutes, during which you will only be able to present a sample of your research and findings. It is important to consider the style of your presentation during this middle section. Sometimes it is more appropriate to use narrative, sometimes to refer to a list of key points, and sometimes to explore one or two crucial themes in depth. If you are clear about the aim of your talk, the most suitable style will also become clear to you.

The concluding phase of the talk is likely to be about the same length as the introduction and normally includes a summary of the key points, the limitations of the research and a mention of further areas for investigation, unresolved issues and challenges. It helps to leave the audience with a sense that the talk is complete by referring back to one of your opening points or remarks. For example:

'I began by quoting from...I want to conclude by...'

'My purpose throughout this talk has been to...My research has indicated that...There still remains much to be done, but I hope that this contribution has made our search for truth just a little more meaningful.'

TYPES OF PRESENTATION

There are many different ways of presenting your talk, but they can be reduced to four broad types:

1. A transmission approach, where the presenter does all the talking and the audience does all the listening.

2. A reciprocal approach, where the presenter initiates the talk but invites occasional responses from the audience.

3. An interactive approach, in which there is a free flow of ideas between audience and presenter, governed by agreed rules of exchange.

4. A transmission/plenary approach, commonly used when presenting a paper, where a transmission approach during the first part of the session is followed by questions and comments from the audience during the second part.

There are a number of variations on type 4, incorporating either ‘reciprocity’ or ‘interactivity’. The preparation of notes for the different styles of talk is dealt with later in detail (see Making notes for the presentation) .

Although some speakers thrive on the cut-and-thrust of interaction with an audience, less experienced and less confident presenters find that the transmission approach is least demanding, the reciprocal approach fairly manageable, and the interactive approach most challenging. The reason for this variation lies in the fact that while direct transmission is wholly under the presenter's control, the other two approaches require a degree of people management, too. Transmission is primarily concerned with providing information, whereas reciprocal and interactive formats deal with information and the exploration of issues/clarification of points involving audience participation.

It is, of course, essential to clarify beforehand the type of approach that you intend to adopt. This will almost certainly require some liaison with the conference organiser. Clarity about your approach will also help you in preparing the talk, as there is little point in devoting a lot of time preparing material that remains unused or under employed due to time constraints or other practicalities.

Gaining and maintaining attention

It is obvious that there is little point in having something vital and interesting to say if no-one is listening or absorbing what is being said! An adult audience will normally choose to be present to hear your paper, so you begin with an advantage in not having to persuade people that the topic is interesting. On the other hand, you have the responsibility of convincing them that they made the right decision to come. Sometimes they end up regretting that they bothered and wished they had opted for something else.

Regardless of the significance of the topic or the level of initial interest, speakers sometimes disappoint their audiences. This is normally due to one or more of six factors:

1. They are unclear about what they want to say

This is probably the most fundamental reason underlying an unsatisfactory presentation. If you are uncertain about what you want to say, it is hardly surprising if the audience becomes confused. Even if you are clear, you may not have spent sufficient time rehearsing and practising your talk. Consequently, in the pressure of the occasion, you lose track of your thoughts and end up in a muddle.

SUGGESTION: Near the start of your talk, summarise for the audience the key points that you intend to make. For example: 'During the next twenty-five minutes I intend to do four things. First, describe briefly my involvement with the research project and some of the practical challenges I have faced. Second, suggest that there may be an alternative way of representing the ideas about (the subject). Third, share a few experiences from a case study about (the subject). Finally, I shall spend a little more time suggesting a few practical ways in which we might begin to implement the ideas and identify some potential pitfalls. After I have concluded there should be time for about fifteen minutes of comment and discussion about the likely usefulness in your own situation'.

Notice that you have given the audience explicit information, such as the time pattern, the relative weighting of the four elements and forewarning about the nature of the plenary. It is, of course, important to stick closely to your brief as far as possible. The discipline of explaining your intentions to the audience will help you to focus on the key issues and provide a framework for the presentation.

2. They struggle to express themselves clearly

This issue will be dealt with more fully under CLARITY OF SPEECH. It is worth bearing in mind however, that regardless of all your careful preparation and thinking, the ability to string sentences together coherently is the chief purpose of the exercise. Good communication lies at the heart of an effective presentation.

SUGGESTION: Once you have established a framework for your talk, begin to list (say) five bullet points (numbered 1 to 5) under each sub-heading. Each bullet point should contain a key statement, some information or a summary. Then make a second list of points relating to the first set, only this time write down an implication, question or problem that arises as a result of the first five bullet points. The second list can be numbered 1a, 2a, etc. Finally, write a third set of points that provide some responses, suggestions, issues or conclusions that relate to the points already listed. This 'multiple listing' technique is not intended to fragment your thinking but to bring it under control. Once this is done it is much easier to start the process of combining the different components relating to the key ideas and issues into a coherent narrative.

3. Their speech is weakly articulated

This can happen for two reasons. First, anxiety acts to suppress normal physical functioning, especially ease of breathing. Second, the mouth and tongue can fail to synchronise, thereby distorting the sound produced. The best talks combine clarity, coherence and (even) eloquence.

SUGGESTION: Study the relaxation techniques described under Care of the voice.

4. There are interruptions during the presentation

Interruptions are usually beyond your immediate control. If the interruption is temporary (such as someone coming in late) it is worth pausing until things settle. If it appears to be longer term (such as the sound of hammering), you have to decide whether it is so intrusive as to be intolerable, in which case it is worth asking the chair of proceedings or the host to see if anything can be done about it. If not, it is probably worth making a light-hearted remark about the situation and pressing on. There are, however, some interruptions that can be avoided by being thoroughly prepared and thinking ahead. These relate particularly to practicalities such as having your resources in place and checking that equipment is working.

SUGGESTION: If the interruption is beyond your control, once it is passed remind the audience where you left off: ‘Before the interruption I was explaining how’. If the interruption is due to your own poor organisation, determine in your own mind that you will make every effort to ensure that such a thing will never happen again!

5. Visual and electronic aids get in the way

It is quite common to employ overhead projector slides or utilise PowerPoint during the presentation. Used effectively, both can serve a useful purpose, such as helping to structure the talk, allowing the audience to visualise as well as memorise key points and (if you are under-confident) deflecting attention from yourself. However, visual and electronic aids can be a hindrance if they dominate the proceedings at the expense of the main substance of the talk. In the short period of time available to you, there is a limit to the number of slides and the complexity of the PowerPoint presentation that can, and should, be used. As a rule of thumb, use no more than one sheet (or page) every two or three minutes and avoid overloading them with information. The use of single words and simple phrases is preferable to blocks of writing that the audience struggles to see and interpret. Let the spoken word do the hard work! You also need to bear in mind that some members of the audience will try and copy down what is on the screen, regardless of your pleas. They will become frustrated if you move on too quickly before they can complete their writing.

SUGGESTION: Let the visual information ‘set the scene’ for the presentation rather than dominate it.

 

6. The audience loses interest

   It is very disconcerting when members of the audience become restless. This may or may not have anything to do with your presentation. They may be sitting on uncomfortable chairs, or be hungry, or the air may be stale, or it might be the end of a long day. On the other hand, it could be that they are suffering from 'information overload' or your presentation is uninspiring! Either way, if you note signs of restlessness, it is a signal to change tack, introduce some new ideas, pause and reflect or (in the worst cases) shorten your talk and devote more time to discussion. However, don’t panic or get upset or make reference to the behaviour of individuals.

   SUGGESTION: When preparing, build pauses and rhetorical questions into your talk to provide some variety. Mark them clearly in your notes. If, during the latter stages of the presentation, people become restless, say something to the effect that you are 'coming to a close quite soon' or a similar expression to let the audience know that there isn’t long to go.

Pacing the talk

Giving a paper occupies a specified amount of time, often only about twenty or twenty-five minutes for the main part of the talk and a few more minutes for points of clarification or questions. There is, therefore, only a limited amount of ground that can be covered, no matter how well you know your subject or how skilful your delivery. Once you have designed your talk, it is important to give some thought to the speed with which you will present it. As you do so, bear in mind the following points:

1. There is a limit to the amount of information that an audience can absorb in a given time.
2. Your speed of speaking should take account of the acoustics. The larger and emptier the room, the slower the rate of delivery.
3. The audience should be given some thinking time. This will normally consist of about five or ten seconds of silence after a ‘block’ of delivery.
4. It is worth reviewing key points on two or three occasions during the presentation.
5. Variation in the speed of delivery helps to create a more colourful presentation. Changes of speed are most effective within a single sentence, emphasising key points by saying the words more slowly and precisely.

The above points raise a number of implications:

1. Limit the range of your talk to a manageable form. Don’t be tempted to cover too much ground in an effort to display your prowess.
2. Begin more slowly than you intend to continue. This will allow the audience to ‘tune in’ to the pitch and tone of your voice.
3. Write some pauses into your notes as part of the presentation. Do not allow yourself to rattle on endlessly.
4. Decide what the ‘key points’ are in advance of the talk, not during it.
5. Practise emphasising key words and phrases. Allow your voice to drop in pitch occasionally, without losing clarity.

Pacing a talk is not only a matter of conserving your own energies and reaching the end in one piece! It is also about offering the audience a balance of information, ideas and propositions that they can mentally assimilate. Your presentation can be spoiled by overloading it with too much material or saturating it with facts and figures. Although you want to use the available time effectively, your primary responsibility is to your listeners and not to yourself.

Concluding the talk

A conclusion should be just that, a conclusion! Do not be tempted to launch into fresh territory once you have indicated that the talk is approaching its end. An audience will tolerate a slightly shortened presentation but will be annoyed by one that is extended unreasonably. It is better to leave them baying for more than pleading that the talk should finish!

It is also worth distinguishing between a summary, a conclusion and a recommendation.

A summary is a concise ‘summing up’ of the key points that you have made during your talk. It often consists of just four or five factual statements. A conclusion, on the other hand, is more analytical. It extrapolates the points from the summary into an equivalent set of implications relating to the summary. A recommendation will often relate to questions that were posed in the early part of the talk and the conclusions that have been drawn as a result of exploring the issues throughout the talk. Recommendations provide a framework for ‘theory-in-action’; that is, the implementation of ideas into practice.

All three elements (summary, conclusions, and recommendations) can be woven into the concluding phase of the presentation. However, a lot depends on the main purpose of giving the talk (see PREPARING THE TALK).

CLARITY OF SPEECH

In common with all public speaking, the presentation of a paper is greatly enhanced by clear speech and active communication with the audience. The expression 'active communication' implies that a transaction takes place between speaker and listeners. The transaction is facilitated through the content and tone of the talk, such that a 'sublimation' of the communication channels happens, a phenomenon that has its origins in chemistry, and literally means a vaporising of solid into vapour (liquid or gas). The best communicators are able to break down any 'solid' barriers that may exist between themselves and their listeners (such as weariness or scepticism or unfamiliarity with the subject) and create an environment in which transmissions are smooth and incisive. Words and actions are delivered in a confident and persuasive style, creating an atmosphere in which the audience and speaker are 'at one' in the sense that they are focusing upon the same things at the same time with the same degree of interest. The challenge facing every speaker is to discover ways in which this fluidity can be achieved.

For examples of short talks given by three eminent education researchers, look at Barrett, Elizabeth; Lally, Vic; Purcell, S & Thresh, Robert (1999) Signposts for Educational Research CD-ROM: A Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Sage Publications, London, which is a CD-Rom (available on loan from the University library). You’ll find the audio-presentations in the ‘Research Methodology’ section within ‘Travellers’ Tales’, in which Professor Wilfred Carr, Dr William Richardson and Professor Gary McCulloch discuss ‘Social Science and Educational Research’. You may wish to compare both their answers to the questions posed and their different styles of delivery.

One of the fundamentals of presentation is to make certain that your clarity of speech is of the highest possible quality, facilitated by care of the voice.

Care of the voice

The voice is to the public speaker what the muscles are to the athlete, and is the single most important factor in ensuring clarity and effective communication. There are, of course, other factors that play their part, such as body position, facial expression, acoustics and the nature of the room and relevant content. Nevertheless, speech clarity is fundamental to a good, persuasive presentation.

Speech consists of shaping and controlling the breath that vibrates as it passes through the gap between the vocal chords. Shaping the mouth in different ways forms vowel sounds. Consonants, on the other hand, rely on controlling the flow of air. So both the position of the mouth and the release of air are important considerations for effective speech.

To maximise the likelihood of good speech, it is necessary to ensure that throat and face muscles are relaxed and the main speech organs (especially the tongue and lips) are supple. One of the most persistent problems for speakers is muscular tension and poor breath control. Muscular tension tends to force up the pitch of the voice, leading to an unnatural ‘strangled’ sound and vocal strain. Poor breath control results in a thin sound and bodily fatigue.

Muscular tension and breath control are linked, as paying attention to the latter can reduce the former. Correct breathing is assisted by good posture, which in turn is assisted by a positive attitude. So voice improvement is made possible by paying attention to four things:

• Command of content through thorough preparation to ensure a more confident approach.
• Attention to speech parts (throat, face, lips, etc.) such that they are in the best possible condition.
• Correct breathing to promote a richer sound.
• Good posture when delivering the talk to assist a natural delivery and give the speaker ‘presence’ in the situation.

Care of the voice can be improved by a simple exercise that involves practising breathing while standing with feet slightly apart and body relaxed but upright. Inhaling takes place through the nose (keeping the shoulders loose) for a count of four, followed by holding the breath for a further count of four and slowly exhaling through the mouth for at least a count of eight. The exhalation count can be increased gradually over time, but should not put undue strain on your system.

Even if carried out immediately prior to the talk, breathing exercises can make a considerable difference to your wellbeing. If they are done regularly, it is surprising how quickly lung capacity and breath control improve as a result, with a resulting positive impact upon the quality of your speech.

• There are also some simple exercises to improve the suppleness of lips and tongue. For instance, it is helpful to practise tongue twisters of the sort: ‘Shy shepherds sheltered shivering sheep’ and ‘Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper’. Gentle massaging of the face and neck can also relax muscles and ease tension. Rapid speaking out loud of numbers or letters of the alphabet, with emphasis on the consonants and exaggerated lip movements, loosens the tongue. Thus: ‘one and two and three, etc.’ It is also useful to practise changes in pace by using a well-known rhyme (such as Twinkle, twinkle, little star) and repeating it faster and faster without losing clarity.

• Singing is another way in which the vocal chords and speech parts can be freed. You don’t have to be an opera star to sing a well known tune to ‘la’ or string together a series of nonsense words, such as ‘minny manny mooey’ or ‘piggly poggly gurgly thiggly’, whose unusual combination of sounds cause the face muscles to work a little harder than usual. As you do so, it is extremely important to keep breathing as naturally as possible and avoid straining. The best speech is produced when the body is working in harmony, so that lungs are properly expanded, the throat is clear, the face and lips are supple and the flow of air is constant.

Care of the voice is made easier by taking care of your general health. It goes without saying that over-work, lack of sleep, and the inevitable minor illnesses that follow, have an adverse effect upon voice quality.

During the presentation

Care of the voice needs to happen during, as well as before, your presentation. The most common causes of deteriorating voice quality are inappropriate use and incorrect treatment. Inappropriate use can take two main forms:

• Shallow breathing that leads to a situation where the vocal chords are straining to do the work that should, properly, be carried out by the lungs. Making a deliberate effort to relax your shoulders, adopting an upright (but not tense) pose and breathing deeply rather than taking shallow gasps can rectify this unsatisfactory situation. If you have ‘written in’ some pauses, it increases the likelihood that you will succeed in this. If there is a lull in proceedings, you may find it possible to practise the breathing exercise described above.

• Attempting to speak too loudly for sustained periods of time can seriously damage your voice. Although it is sometimes appropriate to use a microphone, it is much more common to speak naturally. Whatever the size of the room, speech carries better if it is well articulated, smoothly delivered and directed towards the back of the room. This latter technique also tends to raise the chin and free the air passages, improving the resonance.

Incorrect treatment of the voice during presentations involves heavy and prolonged coughing and forceful clearing of the throat. Heavy coughing and clearing the throat sometimes cannot be avoided but should be kept to a minimum. Taking gulps of cold water can also be detrimental to health as the body constantly creates mucous and it is important that this is not swept away by the liquid. Cold water tends to wash away the mucous and can make things worse. If your mouth feels dry, it is better to have a glass of fruit cordial at room temperature or suck a small piece of liquorice. There is also a range of very small ‘voice lubricants’ available commercially that can be popped in the mouth without adversely affecting delivery.

PREPARING THE TALK

The ability to put across a message clearly and succinctly is a requirement of anyone who seeks to influence others. Giving a paper is, primarily, to exert such an influence to the listener’s advantage. It is a verbal offering that includes ideas, thoughts, knowledge, propositions and arguments presented in a structured form that will invoke a positive response from an audience. The very best papers are presented in such a way that difficult and complex issues are reduced to a simple form, such that listeners can absorb and interpret the key points without feeling patronised. Achieving such a balance is far from easy. Too much detail can cloud the principal issues. Too little detail leaves an audience feeling frustrated and irritated. Simplification allows an audience to grasp the concepts. Over-simplification merely serves to annoy and bewilder. A skilled presenter must therefore take into account at least four things:

1. The composition of the audience.
2. The complexity of the issues being presented.
3. The length of time available for the talk.
4. The purpose of the talk.

Purpose of the talk

Being clear in your mind about the purpose of the talk, and knowing what you are trying to achieve, are the two most crucial factors in determining the success of the presentation. There are likely to be a number of different dimensions to this, including:

• providing information
• increasing listeners’ knowledge
• raising questions and seeking answers
• clarifying issues
• promoting a particular philosophy

In clarifying the purpose(s) of the talk from the outset it means, of course, that you have to be quite clear yourself, first! This elementary point can be easily overlooked, as the intensity of the occasion can sometimes be overwhelming. It is helpful, therefore, to give each of the five bullet points listed above a simple grading according to its significance. For example, using A to E, where A is ‘very significant’ and E is ‘not at all significant’, the grading for your talk might look something like this:

• providing information (C)
• increasing listeners’ knowledge (D)
• raising questions and seeking answers (A)
• clarifying problematic issues (B)
• promoting a particular philosophy (E)

In this example, the emphasis of the presentation is on raising questions and seeking answers. Little time is devoted to increasing knowledge and virtually none to promoting a particular philosophy. A similar talk, on a different occasion, may emphasise different elements. It is simply a case of deciding, in advance, where the main thrust of the talk will be targeted. Even if this little exercise proves to be impractical, it serves to raise our awareness of the main purpose.

Another way of clarifying the purpose is to ask what outcomes you are hoping to achieve through the presentation. These can be listed in terms of what, following the talk, the audience will:

1. know more about
2. understand more clearly
3. need to think harder about
4. be able to do better
5. appreciate better

Although outcomes can never be guaranteed, the very fact that you have given careful consideration to them will enhance the clarity of purpose and focus your thinking.

Complexity of the issues

Some speakers do not seem to realise that the issues with which they have been wrestling for weeks and months are relatively new to an audience, who have not been privy to the thinking and analysis. Consequently, the presentation becomes far too convoluted and laden with facts, to such an extent that only the most nimble minded person can follow what is being said. By contrast, a good presenter will have done most of the hard work in advance of the meeting and convey the main points in an intelligible, systematic way, that allows listeners to absorb and interpret what is being said.

Composition of the audience

Some speakers seem to ‘hawk’ their talk from conference to conference, without taking account of the different audiences. They are the academic equivalent of door-to-door sales representatives, with a suitcase of papers instead of brushes! If the talk were merely a repetition of material, with little account taken of the context, it would be better to make some tape recordings of it instead and send them by post to the different venues. This would save everyone a lot of time and trouble! In fact, audiences are never identical from one place to another, and although it is not possible to know in advance their exact composition and disposition, an effective presenter tries to discover as much about the likely attendees as possible and adjusts the talk accordingly.

Controlling the length of the talk

If you rehearse your talk carefully, you should have a reasonable idea about the time it takes to complete it. It is worth having approximate timings for each part of the talk; for instance, the length of the introduction, presentation of facts, implications for future practice, and so on. These timings do not need to be over-precise but it helps you to be disciplined and reduces the likelihood of spending too long on some sections at the expense of others. If you, or the person chairing the meeting, inform the audience that the talk will last for a given amount of time, it is wise to conform to it, even at the cost of having to abridge the content.

Familiarity with the material

Most presenters are thoroughly familiar with the content of their talk but find that in the pressure of the moment their minds go blank. Familiarity with the material needs, therefore, to transcend knowledge of content and incorporate an understanding of the complexities involved and the questions, dilemmas and challenges that your talk may present to an audience. The term ‘familiarity’ is, perhaps, better described by using terms such as ‘immersion’ or ‘saturation’, implying a comprehensive understanding and knowledge of the subject and its implications. This is not to say that you should be trying to give the impression that you know everything there is to know about the subject, but that you can speak with some authority, both about the things that are plain to you and the things that are not. Both of these elements (things that are plain, things that are not) should be written into the talk and shared openly with the audience. It is sometimes useful to put questions that you wish to pose, and unresolved issues to which you want to alert the audience, in bold type in your notes (see below).

Making notes for the presentation

Preparing notes for giving a paper will be influenced by many factors, such as size of room, composition of audience, use of visual aids. Regardless of the context, however, it is important to determine the style of presentation that is appropriate for the occasion. For instance, if you are giving a formal speech, it may be appropriate to have a ‘verbatim’ copy in front of you, so that you can read it aloud exactly as it is printed. In a more relaxed setting, it is normally inappropriate to read the text as it appears in front of you, as this can be tedious and leave the audience wondering why you bothered to turn up and did not merely send along a copy for someone else to read! Assuming that you do not intend to read it ‘verbatim’, there are four other ways of preparing your notes:

1. Having only main headings. Only the key phrases are written on separate cards, one for each phrase, or on a single sheet (or page in PowerPoint). This approach is only possible if you have an exceptionally thorough grasp of the content and have rehearsed it diligently. The main headings (let’s say there are eight of them in total) are used only as prompts for each section of the presentation. The detailed information, questions, ideas and suggestions needed for the talk are stored in your mind. For example, your card for the introductory phase might simply say:

• Say good morning, welcome audience
• Introduce myself
• Thank chair for the introduction
• Give outline of talk

2. Having main headings plus sub-headings in the form of bullet points. This approach is one step up from the first option. The only written notes are the main headings, but more detail is offered to the audience through the visual aid, which also provides you with prompts for developing the talk. If you use such an approach, it is important to remember not to ‘swamp’ your visual aids with too much detail. For example, your card for the main body of the talk might say:

• (Card A) Why the topic is important (slide 1 with bullet points)
• (Card B) Previous work in the field (slide 2 with bullet points)
• (Card C) Background to my research (slide 3 with bullet points)
• (Card D) Main findings (slide 4 with bullet points)
• (Card E) Key issues (slide 5 with bullet points)

Each overhead slide (or PowerPoint page) will contain a further set of sub-headings in the form of bullet points relating to the main headings. You then provide the verbal information about each sub-heading, supported, perhaps, by quotations or anecdotes (see The use of anecdote).

3. Having main headings and sub-headings and lists of key points. Again, you have separate cards/sheets on which are written your main headings that provide the framework for the talk. This time, the sub-headings are in the form of bullet points listed on the card (as opposed to an OHP sheet or PowerPoint page). Visual aids in the form of a chart, diagram, quotation or picture are used to support your explanation. For example, the layout of your notes for the concluding phase may look like this:

(Card A) Summarise points

• Point 1 (plus a quotation on a slide)
• Point 2 (plus a diagram on a slide)
• Point 3 (no slide)
• Point 4 (no slide)

(Card B) Refer back to opening statement

• Point 1 (no slide)
• Point 2 (no slide)

(Card C) Pose key questions

• Point 1 (slide with Q1)
• Point 2 (slide with Q2)

(Card D) Suggest ways forward

• Point 1 (no slide)
• Point 2 (no slide)
• Point 3 (no slide)

Some variations on this basic structure are possible, including, for instance, revealing points one at a time from a list on a single slide.

4. Having main and sub-headings with chunks of ‘verbatim’ text and structured interludes. This is probably the limit of written material worth producing in advance of the talk. Your main headings and sub-headings are in set out as described above in 3, but under the bullet points are blocks of text that you read out-loud. This approach differs from a full-blown ‘verbatim’ approach in that you leave gaps after each block of text that allows you to comment freely (liberated speaking, see Impromptu and liberated speaking) without reference to notes. Thus:

(Card A) Summarise points

• Point 1 (slide with quotation)

BLOCK OF TEXT TO READ ALOUD

• Point 2 (slide of diagram)

BLOCK OF TEXT TO READ ALOUD

• Point 3 (no slide)

BLOCK OF TEXT TO READ ALOUD

• Point 4 (no slide)

BLOCK OF TEXT TO READ ALOUD

So, to summarise, your notes may consist of cards containing:

1. Main headings only (you provide the substance of the information).
2. Main headings only (where you use the bullet points as prompts).
3. Main headings, sub-headings and bullet points (where bullet points are listed on the cards and visual aids provide supporting material).
4. Main headings, sub-headings and bullet points with chunks of text to read verbatim, followed by pauses or liberated speaking.

A glance at the options shows that they increasingly rely on the printed word. Thus, option 1 has the smallest amount of written information and the presenter must, therefore, be able to speak in a natural and informed way to the audience without the support of any text. Only confident presenters who have (probably) given the paper several times before to other audiences use this approach. By contrast, option 4 depends heavily on the written word but gives the presenter and audience some relief from the ‘plain diet’ of hearing the paper read aloud (verbatim). This option probably suits less confident and experienced presenters, who feel more secure in being able to rely substantially on the availability of text but have some opportunity in the ‘gaps’ to add comment without reference to notes or leave pauses.

As noted earlier, a fifth option is to read verbatim from a prepared text. If you feel that this is the only way to prepare your notes, it is essential that you rehearse thoroughly and use a highlighter pen to accentuate key points on the sheet. Reading verbatim requires particular attention to enunciation, variation in speed and tone, and a relaxed delivery. It is best thought of, perhaps, as the academic equivalent of reading an adventure story to children!

Whichever approach you select, your notes should conform to the acronym RASA (Readable, Accessible, Structured, Annotated):

• Readable: Use a large print size for ease of reading. It makes life more straightforward if you do not need to constantly take spectacles on and off, or have to stare intently at your sheets because the print is too small.
• Accessible: Ensure that the notes are physically easy to handle. Some presenters prefer to use loose cards or sheets, other presenters prefer to put sheets in a ring binder or another secure form of holding them together. Whatever method is used, it is vital to number the sheets or cards and, for simplicity, only to write on one side of them. At all costs, it is essential to ensure that your sheets don’t slide off the lectern or table!
• Structured: Regardless of technological wizardry, written notes still provide the most convenient means of structuring a talk, so it is important that they are set out in such a way that they facilitate your presentation and do not hinder it. For instance, it is helpful if main headings and sub-headings are clearly separated and distinguished from other text by using colour codes or block capitals. If you are a less experienced presenter, it is worth keeping everything in strict chronological order. The use of ‘additional’ material (such as charts, graphs) to supplement the main talk enhances its richness and diversity, but if you are inexperienced, take note that their use complicates the presentation for you considerably.
• Annotated: It is useful to make clear links between the written word and the accompanying visual aids. This might take the form of a colour code in your notes to indicate that the next aid has to be shown. Similarly, it is helpful if key points or questions or anecdotes are highlighted in some way so that you don’t forget them during the talk. One way of doing this is to frame the question/anecdote in a box or write them in a different colour so that they stand out on the page.

Please refer to the paper by Catherine Adams (2006) ‘PowerPoint, habits of mind and classroom culture’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp 389-411 for a well-written and thought-provoking article about presentation format, thinking skills and knowledge forms. Adams' article is a ‘must’ for any teacher (at every level) who is interested in communicating effectively with an audience.  University of Plymouth staff and students can access this paper via 'Electronic Journals' in the staff or student portal (for advice on how to do this please contact the library).

ENGAGING THE AUDIENCE

The whole of this account so far has been to help you to deliver your paper confidently and effectively. The ‘proof of the pudding’ however, is the point at which you come face to face the audience. Some speakers have lots of potentially interesting material and prepare thoroughly, but fail to engage the audience’s interest during the presentation.

Making a positive start

The need to make a positive start is recognised by most public speakers, who use a variety of strategies to involve the audience early on, including:

• Telling a humorous story
• Telling an anecdote
• Giving a personal insight
• Sharing a recent incident involving themselves

Although all of these ‘starters’ can get the talk off to a smooth start, and help the audience and the presenter to relax, they can also backfire if badly handled. It is sometimes better to employ a more formal (but positive) tone and follow a standard routine:

• Look around the room and smile
• Say ‘good morning/evening’
• Thank everyone for coming (and the Chair for the introduction)
• Give the title of the talk and a brief explanation of its purpose

In respect of the final bullet point, even if the person chairing the proceedings has already given the information, it is worth reiterating: As Chris has already said, my talk is entitled…etc. It is surprising how ill informed some members of the audience can be about the theme! The stories, humour and anecdotes are often most effective when the presentation is well underway and the audience has tuned in to the sound of your voice and the topic in hand.

Communicating with the audience

Good communication lies at the heart of an effective talk. To enhance your level of communication with an audience, there are at least seven points worth considering:

1. Directing the talk

It probably goes without saying that the primary rule for all public speaking is to do all that you can to convince your listeners that you are directing your talk to them, individually. Many of the strategies for enhancing this are discussed elsewhere in this study component but establishing and maintaining good eye contact is by far the most notable. However, the content of what you say is also an essential element of this process, as the relevance of the talk is also of paramount importance.

2. Proximity to audience

The size of room and the arrangement of furniture often dictate your position with respect to the audience. It may or may not be a good idea to move closer to your listeners, depending upon the nature of the occasion. The more formal the occasion (and the layout of the room) the more ‘fixed’ to the spot a presenter tends to be. In an informal setting, it may be possible to shift position from time to time to refocus attention and (in some cases) to gain better eye contact. Closer proximity to the audience carries risks because it may be interpreted as threatening or confrontational. You may also become physically detached from your notes and aids. On the other hand, closer proximity can foster a more intimate atmosphere and soften the speaker/listener boundaries.

3. Standing or sitting

Whether you stand or sit depends upon the context. In a small room with few people it is probably more appropriate to sit. If you sit, it is important to have access to your visual aids and equipment. It is ungainly to see a presenter stretching across a table or having to push past chairs to get to something. Sitting tends to confine the lungs, so it is important to sit reasonably upright and to avoid ‘talking down’ to your notes. If you stand, your voice will project further but may resonate. You may wish to hold your notes close to your chest rather than have to peer down at them on the table.

4. Furniture

Engagement with an audience is usually facilitated by a more informal arrangement. Some speakers find that too much furniture, especially a table positioned between themselves and their listeners, acts as a barrier and is to the detriment of good quality interaction. They prefer (say) to have a simple ring of chairs to promote a mood of egalitarianism. Other speakers find that a table acts as a ‘shield’ and affords them some security during the presentation. In fact, members of the audience may wish to be ‘invisible’ during the meeting and find that a very open environment does not allow them important opportunities to doodle, daydream and relax. On those occasions when there is likely to be a large number of verbal exchanges, informal arrangements are more appropriate.

5. Inserting pauses

Some speakers seem afraid to pause lest something uncomfortable happens during those few seconds. In fact, the appropriate use of pauses can be valuable in raising (not lowering) the level of interaction. Short pauses (up to about five seconds) give an audience time to re-orientate and often mean that the next thing that you say is listened to with greater care. A brief pause also allows you to mentally relax for a moment, change body position and re-establish eye contact. Longer pauses (up to about ten seconds) may occasionally be necessary if you need (for instance) to take a sip of water, move to a different part of the room or leave the audience space to ponder a deep proposition or question. There is no need to be afraid of pauses if they are used to draw listeners back to the topic, heighten the sense of expectation or facilitate a change of tack. The audience won’t leave the room while they wait!

6. Deliberately slowing speed of speech

In addition to pauses, slackening the speed of delivery can be a useful strategy for enhancing the degree of interaction with an audience. Slower speech is most effective when used either to pose a question or to emphasise a key point. In the latter case, firmer stress on consonants in words helps to convey the seriousness of the proposition.

7. Reviewing what has been said

The short time available for presentations normally means that there is a strong pressure on filling every moment with ideas. However, it is worth spending a few moments at key junctures in the presentation to remind the audience what you have already said, before continuing to the next section. These reviews do not need to be attenuated or repetitive. They form useful ‘bridges’ between phases of the talk and help to reassure listeners that you are in charge of your material. The final review will, of course, form an important part of your conclusion.

Impromptu and liberated speaking

There is a difference between ‘impromptu’ speaking (extempore, without previous thought) and ‘liberated’ speaking (unfettered, discursive). Impromptu speaking is done off the top of the head, spontaneously, whereas liberated speaking is done without reference to notes but follows a pre-determined brief.

Impromptu speaking is often prefaced by the use of a phrase such as ‘that reminds me of the time’ or ‘it occurs to me that’ and can be a powerful method of communicating if it helps to clarify a point or stir the audience. On the other hand, impromptu speaking runs a risk of diverting attention from the main point, becoming long-winded or distorting the balance of the presentation. Some presenters become so involved in the excitement of speaking ‘off the cuff’ that they lose the thread of the talk and falter or lose momentum.

By contrast, liberated speaking emerges from thorough preparation and familiarity with material, such that presenters can put notes to one side and maintain constant eye contact with the audience. Liberated speaking has to be the most conscientiously rehearsed part of the presentation. It is like continuing to sing in tune after the musicians have ceased playing, so requires careful preparation. It is probably true that the very best communicators make their ‘liberated’ speaking sound as if it is ‘impromptu’. That is, they appear to completely disregard their notes when, unbeknown to the audience, their apparent spontaneity is following a carefully prepared and rehearsed structure. Sir Winston Churchill was regarded as one of the best ‘impromptu’ speakers of his generation. He made it all look and sound so natural!

Body language

Although giving a paper may be uninterrupted in the sense that spoken comments from the audience are not invited, it is important, nevertheless, to keep your listeners involved and feeling part of the proceedings. There are several strategies to use to achieve this, including the use of rhetorical questions, posing scenarios for consideration and telling an anecdote or story. Whatever the style of presentation, the effective use of body language is a powerful means of helping members of the audience to engage with the talk. Four strategies may be usefully employed:

1. Maintaining an open body position. The shoulders are kept as wide as possible and the arms slightly away from the hips, as opposed to hunching the shoulders and keeping the arms wrapped around the front of the body. Arm folding and hand clasping can help to relax the atmosphere if only used occasionally but should not be the normal pose.

2. Standing up straight or leaning gently forward. This should be possible even if seated. Leaning back or jutting the chin in the air, sweeping your eyes across the audience without really looking at anyone, or staring constantly at an invisible spot on the back wall, all tend to result in a ‘disengaged’ atmosphere and distance you from your listeners.

3. Demonstrating a bright facial disposition. It is surprising how shining eyes and a pleasant, natural smile can help convince the listeners that the speaker has something worth saying. A ‘stony’ face has a depressing effect on an audience’s mood and willingness to be sympathetic towards what you say.

4. Expressive use of hands. Gracious movement of arms and fingers can help to reinforce a point or ‘paint’ a picture in listeners’ minds. This is not the same, of course, as gesticulating and making irritating, jerky movements or jumping to-and-fro like a ping-pong ball!

The use of humour

Unless you are good at telling jokes, it is best to avoid doing so. Jokes tend to ‘do the rounds’ and most people will have heard the one you tell (or a version of it). There is also the danger of unintentionally offending someone or demeaning your role as a serious presenter. The use of humour, on the other hand, can be a powerful tool, providing it is not over-done or used offensively or derisively.

A characteristic of most effective talks is the ability of the presenter to be both pleasant and serious, and to come across as a cheerful person with something interesting to offer. Needless to say, this is difficult to achieve if you are unduly tense or anxious about what you intend to say and do. Establishing and maintaining a balance between cheerfulness and seriousness is assisted when we understand that:

• Being serious is different from being grim
• Being humorous is different from being frivolous
• Being cheerful is different from being light-hearted

The best presenters are able to influence the audience in such a way that they can change the mood in the room by moderating their voice tone, speed of delivery and body language. Thus, for a serious mood:

• Voice tone is moderated
• Speed of delivery is slowed
• Body language is subdued

Whereas for a cheerful mood:

• Voice tone is lifted
• Speed of delivery is heightened
• Body language is animated

The overall balance of different moods will depend upon the topic. However, whatever variations in mood are employed, it is helpful to begin seriously to convince the audience that you have something important to say and end cheerfully to promote a positive feel to the concluding moments of your talk.

The use of anecdote

Some illustrations that claim to be anecdotes are little more than stories to entertain the audience and pass the time. A helpful anecdote is a simple story that illustrates a single point, the emphasis being on the 'point' rather than the 'story'. Anecdotes can be drawn from true situations or imaginary ones, but should be closely related to the issue in hand. They can be used as an analogy, whereby you commence with a phrase such as 'It's like saying...' or as a counterweight, such as 'Unlike the situation where...'

Analogies are also useful to stimulate thought, express ambiguities or recognise dilemmas. Typically, in introducing an anecdote for such a purpose, you might begin by saying: 'Consider what you might have done in this instance...' before commencing the story.

An effective anecdote leaves the audience with a better understanding of the point you were trying to illustrate. They should never be too complicated or the purpose of them can be lost. They should never be protracted or, by the time you return to the main theme, listeners have difficulty picking up the thread of your argument.

Anecdotes may be drawn from your personal experience. If so, minimise your own role in the account and concentrate on the issues. When recounting a gripping story, be careful not to leave your audience wondering 'what happened next' or they will be frustrated with the incompleteness of the tale and unable to concentrate on the next section of your talk.

Anecdotes can be taken from well-known stories, including fantasies and fables (such as Aesop's). A child's story can also be the source for an analogy (such as the limit to rationalism represented in Jack and the Beanstalk when he 'instinctively' but wisely exchanges the cow for some beans).

Anecdotes often bolster your engagement with an audience but they can absorb an undue amount of time, so need to be used sparingly.

Ways to impair your engagement with the audience

There are a number of ways in which you can alienate rather than engage an audience. Many of the following points are implicit in earlier sections, but are of such significance that they justify being reinforced here:

1. Crowding your paper with too much material

If your aims and purposes are precise, and you have carefully rehearsed your presentation, this should not be a problem. If you hear yourself about to tell your listeners that you have 'just a couple more things to mention', when your time is almost up, it is better to conclude briskly and finish.

2. Wandering off the point

As we noted earlier, there are many temptations to wander off the point. If you find yourself enjoying yourself too much at the front, the chances are that your audience is not! It is possible to get carried away with the occasion and lose your sharpness. Unfortunately, it usually feels so good when you start meandering, so it is easy to misinterpret the polite smiles and fixed expressions.

3. Being unnecessarily controversial

Tackling tough issues is the heartbeat of a good paper, especially if you have thought through the issues and arguments carefully beforehand. There is a difference, however, between presenting a variety of alternative positions or challenging well established assumptions, and deliberately whipping up emotions with provocative comments. The former approach results in thoughtful debate, the latter leads to fractiousness and a polarisation of views.

4. Reacting to superficial responses

Don’t read too much from people’s faces and reactions. Sometimes the person who seems to be bored throughout or frowns a lot is, in fact, highly appreciative of what you are doing. The bright-eyed individual may be asleep with his eyes open or working out a hard question to ask you at the end! You will probably never know whether the majority of people are enjoying your presentation or not, so don't waste time worrying about it. Once you convince yourself that the audience is bored or sceptical, you will quickly lose confidence and psychologically 'distance' yourself from them.

5. Failing to reinforce points

You have spent a long time considering the issues you are presenting in your paper, whereas the audience has probably spent much less time. It pays, therefore, to underline key points regularly and, if the issues are complex, offer a variety of insights and examples to reinforce them. The introduction to such reinforcement will often be introduced by use of expressions such as: 'Let me put this another way...' or 'A different way of seeing this is...'

6. Dwelling too long on points

By contrast with item 5, it is possible to over-state issues to the point that you become repetitive. It is only a short step from repetition to tedium, so keep stay sharply aware of any tendency to become ponderous.

7. Sounding self-congratulatory

There is a big difference between sounding confident and cocky! Audiences relax with a confident presentation but groan inwardly if they think the presenter is arrogant. A little humility goes a long way!

8. Patronising the audience

None of us deliberately patronise an audience. It usually happens when we have failed to do our homework about their experience and expectations, and consequently misjudge the content of our talk. The solution is obvious: always find out about the audience composition. If, for any reason you do not have this prior information, it is worth spending the first few minutes asking your listeners about why they have come. You may be surprised or alarmed at some of the answers!

9. Getting facts wrong

It is important to check your facts carefully during your preparation. A solitary error, especially in the early stages of the talk, can prejudice an audience. It is particularly important to double-check dates, names of individuals and specialist terms.

Nerves can impel us to say things while giving a paper that we would never normally contemplate saying. There are a number of particularly unwise statements that should be avoided during the talk. For instance:

• You’ll have to forgive me, as I’m not very used to public speaking. Unless you are amongst a group of close friends, you are unlikely to receive much sympathy. An audience likes to believe that the presenter has some expertise and confidence.

• You’re probably wondering where all this is getting us! Don’t put negative thoughts in their minds.

• I will return to this later on. You can say this at the start of the presentation but not mid-way through or as you approach the end, otherwise the audience will think it will be going on for a long time. It is better to say ‘I will return to this in a moment’, which gives the audience hope that the talk will not be interminable.

• I expect you want me to shut up and let you get a word in edgeways. If you make such a statement, anything you say from that point onward will be perceived as a hindrance to letting the audience contribute. It is better to say ‘I want to spend five more minutes concluding this part of the talk, then I will take a few questions before we watch the video extract’.

• You’ve been a wonderful audience. Such shallow remarks can cheapen the enterprise. If you are genuinely grateful, it is better to say ‘Thank you for listening so attentively, I have really appreciated the chance to share my research with you’.

DEALING WITH QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS

It is common to spend a few minutes at the end of the presentation to allow for questions and/or comments. If you have succeeded in generating interest and raised some relevant issues, there should be little difficulty in filling the allotted time, providing it is properly managed. It is normal for someone to chair proceedings and even if you feel confident to handle the situation, a chair can control the proceedings, protect you from any wayward or thoughtless comments and ensure that lots of people have a chance to contribute.

The chairperson's role

Regardless of the chair's best endeavours, some questions and comments will come across as a non-too-subtle attempt to discredit your position or undermine your credibility. It is a sad fact that a very small number of people take it upon themselves to expose the weaknesses in an argument in a way that undermines the presenter’s authority, while choosing to disregard the strengths. However, it is important to distinguish this tiny minority from a much larger group who probe issues and ask close questions as a means of clarifying and understanding the position better. Some people are quite nervous about making a comment in public and this can cause them to express things awkwardly. As the presenter, and regardless of what you believe their motives to be, you should listen closely to all that members of the audience say and ask, concentrate on the speaker as much as possible (even when jotting things down!) and thank that person for their contribution.

Your responses

Most questions are genuine and are a request for clarification. A few are requests for further information. Sometimes questions are not really questions at all but statements or (even prejudices) dressed up like questions. In such cases, it may be helpful to divert the issue by saying 'I think your question raises a number of very important points that I shall need to consider further. Thank you for alerting me to them.' On other occasions the questioner is wrestling with some difficult concepts by trying to formulate a question. In these situations, you may need to 'rescue' the person by carefully intervening with 'I think I see what you're trying to say' and attempting to summarise the points. If the question is obscure or incomprehensible, the chair should intervene; otherwise, a simple response to the effect that you are unsure of the significance of the points being raised and invite other members of the audience to offer their ideas. A silence will signal that they are as confused as you are!

Where possible it is best to try and answer the question posed rather than be evasive. If you do not know the answer, admit that you are struggling to respond. If someone raises an issue or introduces a perspective that had not occurred to you, be thankful. One way and another, make every effort to show that in presenting your paper, you have as much to learn as to impart.

POSTSCRIPT

More advice on these matters can be obtained from experienced presenters (Appendix 3) and from various websites (Appendix 1) and texts (Appendix 2).

Every form of public speaking requires a lot of effort and uses up a considerable amount of energy. Give yourself some space after the meeting to relax and recover. Accept praise modestly. Accept the lack of praise with dignity.

There is little point in agonising over any problems that may have occurred during the talk or regretting ways in which it might have been improved. Although the temptation is to file the talk away and forget about it, it pays to let a couple of days elapse before returning to it and evaluating the quality of the presentation. In doing so, however, it is important to remember that you cannot judge the impact of your paper. You will probably never know! The chances are that although most of the audience will forget about it within a short time, a few will remember and, perhaps, change their opinions or actions as a result.  The thought that you will have had such an impact makes all the effort worthwhile.

One way to guarantee that your paper has a lasting impact is to write it up for publication as a journal article or book chapter, or to put it up on a website.   Advice on this is given in the accompanying RESINED component 'Writing Up Research' - see the section headed 'Writing for publication'.

Appendix 1: Links to Websites

The following list may be helpful:

Appendix 2: Useful texts

You may find that some or all of the following offer valuable insights:

Hayes, D. (1998) Effective Verbal Communication, London: Hodder & Stoughton.   ISBN 0-340-72541-9

McGee, P. (1998) Perfect Public Speaking, London: Arrow Business Books.   ISBN 0-09-925727-0

Rawlins, K. (1993) Presentation and Communication Skills, London: Macmillan Magazines.  ISBN 0-333-60960-3

Rodenburg, P. (1992) The Right Way to Speak: Working With the Voice, London: Methuen Drama.  ISBN 0-413-66140-7

Woods, P. (1999) Successful Writing for Qualitative Researchers, London: Routledge.  ISBN 0-415-18847-4 (See pages 133-142 for helpful guidance about writing for publication.)

Appendix 3: What the experts say

Professor Peter Woods (Open University and the University of Plymouth)

• Preparation is crucially important, especially with regard to knowing your subject, knowing what you want to say. Itemising the main points you want to get over might help. Rehearsing the talk, or parts of it, beforehand can sharpen delivery, and give a good indication of what can be said comfortably within the time available.

• Structure and style of the presentation needs to be considered. Thought needs to be given to the 'talk' rather than 'writing' medium. A talk is a talk, not a reading. In general it is better not to read a paper which has been written as an article, though there are some occasions where this might be appropriate. One of these might be a first talk where the presenter might feel the need of the security of a paper with the words that are going to be said. Such papers need to be 'talk papers', written as they are to be delivered, with a live audience in mind. They should have breaks where the presenter can break off and elaborate on a point, or give examples. They should have a mind to the cadence of delivery, to some of the oratorical skills of language, to making points interesting. The occasional humorous note is very welcome to a long-suffering conference audience. If it is good humour, they will warm to you, and keep awake. Thought might be given to the dramaturgical aspects of the presentation (cf. Goffman on the 'presentation of self'). I once did some research amongst some drama students who were training to be teachers. I was most impressed with the confident, assured, personable, interesting, engaging and highly effective way in which they addressed the children, and concluded the training in drama had something to do with it. But beware of over-acting!

• If you know your subject well, and have a number of aids (such as OHPs), all you may need is a structure with headings and sub-headings (which indeed might be the first OHP). You then simply talk to the headings. However, beware of using too many OHPs - a case of the medium taking over the message. And make sure they can be read at the back of the hall without the aid of binoculars. It is a good practice when writing papers to put yourself in the place of the reader. Is what you are writing 'reader-friendly'? The same goes for talks. Is your talk 'listener-friendly'?

• Err on the side of less rather than more. The worst talks I have experienced is where somebody has written a lengthy paper, probably mainly designed for publication in an academic journal, and has read it through from beginning to end in great haste and without a pause, in order to get it all in, leaving presenter and audience gasping for breath, bored out of their minds, and wondering what it was all about (and with no time for questions to find out!). The aim of a talk is to get a point across in the most convincing way possible, not just to occupy the time and to survive from the beginning to the end and enter it on one's CV.

• Leave time for questions and discussion. This might be the most anxious part for a new presenter as it is largely out of your control and you do not know what questions are going to come up, or if there is a paid-up member of the 'awkward squad' in attendance. But it is invariably the most interesting for both audience and presenter as something new might be generated. After all, a talk is an interactional process. Answer questions as directly and fully as possible, without waffling. If you don't know the answer or part of the answer, it is better to admit it than to flannel. There might be some interaction, you posing questions back to the questioner. This is where some of your excess knowledge which could not be got into the talk comes in useful - there might be opportunity to get over some more salient points which you had no time to cover in the talk proper. You might get one or two incomprehensible questions. I try converting these into language I understand, which the questioner either accepts or elaborates upon. If even then it is not clear you can be reasonably certain it is not clear to the rest of the audience, and all you can do is have a reasonable shot at what you think the point of the question is.

• It is OK to feel a little nervous - even experienced presenters do - it gets the adrenaline going, keeps the mind sharply tuned, makes you ultra-aware, keeps you focused on the business in hand.

• The points above apply to fairly traditional presentations, but one should acknowledge the range of experimentation that is going on - multi-voiced narratives, text performances, readers' theatre, drama, use of film and video etc. Some might be tempted to experiment if the traditional form is too restrictive or is at odds with the point the presenter wishes to make. (For example, because it imbues too much authority to the presenter and suppresses or misrepresents the voices of others who feature in the talk. This is a validity point).

Professor Harold Silver, Visiting Professor, University of Plymouth

I have sat in on many presentations at conferences, where the programme promises time for questions and discussions after a presentation of possibly 20, or even 30-40 minutes. At the American Education Research Association meetings, it is common for, say, three people to do presentations within a one and a half-hour slot. Each contributor is expected to take 20 minutes, followed by a time for discussion. In both situations there can be calamities. Presenters, experienced as well as inexperienced, seriously over-run, and there is time for only peremptory questions and responses, with probably no time for real discussion.

A major problem arises when the chairperson tries to let the presenter know that she or he must finish in five or three or one minute, and the presenter still has seven or ten pages of manuscript to be read. So the presenter goes on and on, or the presentation is truncated at some inappropriate point. The moral of the story is, therefore, that if the presenter has a text, it ought to be constructed in such a way as to make it possible in an emergency to drop whole sections or pages or paragraphs.

The presenter must keep within the allocated time or the audience will go away thoroughly disgruntled.

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