Beginning Research | Action Research | Case Study | Interviews | Observation Techniques | Education Research in the Postmodern
Evaluation Research in Education | Narrative| Presentations | Qualitative Research | Quantitative Methods | Questionnaires | Writing up Research
Prepared by Professor Andrew Hannan, now led by Dr. Nick Pratt
© A Hannan, Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006
It is important to realise that research can take a wide variety of forms. For many people the term tends to imply the work of 'experts' wearing white coats who set about testing hypotheses by means of controlled experiments, where data are presented in terms of statistical correlations, diagrams and tables. Research in education which takes this form is perceived as something external to teachers, it is done to them rather than by them. Such research has its place and studies such as those undertaken by Mortimore et al (l988) and Tizard et al (l988) are sources of insights of practical importance for primary school teachers which have been produced by teams of experts attempting to measure what makes some schools and teachers more effective than others. Studies of this kind can provide information about a wide range of cases and can make use of methods of data collection such as observation and interview (sometimes called qualitative or ethnographic, see Hammersley and Atkinson l995, Burgess 1985 and Woods 1992) which are more responsive to classroom reality and the perspectives of teachers, pupils and parents than attitude tests and questionnaire surveys (often labelled quantitative, see Cohen, Manion and Morrison 2007). Some teachers attempt to take on the mantle of researcher in these terms and undertake studies based on the collection of data about the world of the school (see the chapter by Andrew Pollard in Burgess 1985).
Another form of research which is seen as particularly responsive to the needs of teachers is known as 'action research' (see Hustler et al 1986, Nixon 1981 and Stenhouse 1975) whereby teachers seek to improve their own understanding and practice (for a full discussion see the RESINED component Action Research in Education). The principle of intervening in the world of schooling in order to bring about change has been part of a tradition going back at least to the days of A. H. Halsey's evaluation of the action research Educational Priority Area projects set up following the Plowden Report in 1967. More recently, following the work of Lawrence Stenhouse and his associates, the emphasis has been on the teacher as researcher seeking to improve his or her practice. The argument here is that action research is likely to be better appreciated and used by teachers because it is done by them and for them and that insights generated by such work are more likely to influence teachers' practice than the theories produced by external experts. Research of this kind starts from teachers focusing on an issue of practical concern, making observations, designing some sort of intervention or innovation, implementing that change, gathering data on the effects and evaluating the impact. An example of such an approach is described by Eileen Booth and Nigel Hall in their chapter Making Sense of Literacy in Hustler et al 1986.
For a full discussion have a look at the CD-Rom Signposts for Educational Research: a Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Barrett et al (1999). For a critique of empirical research from a postmodernist perspective and ideas about alternatives see the RESINED component Education Research in the Postmodern.
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Your study will probably involve some issue or concern of special interest, some 'problem' which you want to investigate. Your focus may be derived from theories you know of or other studies reported in the literature or it may evolve from your involvement in the school, your observations of practice and your discussions with the participants. Good research is usually a combination of deductive (deriving hypotheses from theory) and inductive (generating hypotheses from observation) reasoning. (Visit http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.htm for more information on deductive and inductive reasoning.) You may try action research in an attempt to improve practice or you may wish to test or generate hypotheses through data collection as observer rather than participant.
For a full discussion have a look at the CD-Rom Signposts for Educational Research: a Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Barrett et al (1999). I also strongly recommend A Student's Guide to Methodology, Clough & Nutbrown (2002).
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1) Let me start by describing some of the key stages in putting together any research proposal.
2) It is best to start with a question or an issue or a problem which needs investigation (visit: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/probform.htm for a discussion of problem formulation).
3) Your starting point could be a need for more information such as, ‘What is happening to children with SEN in mainstream schools who would previously have been in separate institutions?’
4) It could be a search for an explanation, such as ‘Why do so few secondary school students in the UK chose to study a second foreign language when this is the norm in other parts of Europe?’
5) It could be an attempt to test theoretical ideas or hypotheses derived from them, such as 'Burns and Stalker (1966 The Management of Innovation) state that bureaucratic forms of organisation hinder change from which it would follow that schools with rigid hierarchical structures are less able than those with more open, democratic and informal procedures to engage in educational innovation. Is this so?'.
6) For a teacher engaged in action research (for a full discussion of which see the RESINED component Action Research in Education) the question posed would derive from his/her practice as an attempt to improve the process or outcomes, such as 'How can I help those with learning difficulties better understand the rich potential of poetry?'.
7) Clough & Nutbrown (2002) have a novel approach to this business:
In our own work we have developed two simple tools that can be employed in the generation of research questions: the 'Russian doll' principle and the 'Goldilocks test'. Applying the Russian doll principle means breaking down the research question from the original statement to something which strips away the complication of layers and obscurities until the very essence - the heart - of the question can be expressed. This may well mean phrasing and rephrasing the question so that each time its focus becomes sharpened and more defined - just as a Russian doll is taken apart to reveal a tiny doll at the centre.
The generated questions can then be subjected to the 'Goldilocks test' - a metaphor for thinking through the suitability of the research questions for a particular researcher in a particular setting at a particular time. So, we can ask: is this question 'too big', such that it cannot be tackled in this particular study at this time - perhaps it is a study which needs significant research funding or assistance which is not usually available to students doing research for an academic award? We can ask 'Is this too small?' - perhaps there is not enough substance to the question to warrant investigation. We can ask if the question is 'too hot' - perhaps an issue which is so sensitive that the timing is not right for investigation - or such that researching it at this point would be not only difficult but damaging in the particular social context. These questions will enable us finally to identify those questions which might be 'just right' for investigation at this time, by this researcher in this setting. (pages 33-34)
Clough & Brown give a well-worked example of how to apply these techniques by writing the suggested research questions in order (see pages 35- 7)
8) Once you have established a starting point see if you can find out more about the topic, about the theories which are available and about other examples of research work in the field. See your tutor for help. Visit the library to undertake a literature search. For details see Smeaton (1999). Find recent journal articles on the topic and track back some of the influential references. Keep notes on your reading, carefully recording page number sources for extracts and publication details (authors, date of publications, publishers and place of publication) for your referencing. All the time you should be looking for ideas to inform your own enquiry in terms of methods used, things to look for and appropriate explanations. See section below on Using the Library.
9) The next big question to deal with is that of the choice of methods to be used to collect data, decisions about ways in which you intend to explore your topic and collect the relevant information.
10) Will you want to study one location or several? Will you use questionnaire, interview, observation or experiment? Will you need to consult documents? Where do you need to go and what and who do you need to see and talk to?
11) You will need to establish some sort of 'plan of work'. This does not have to be a cast iron commitment to a rigid set of procedures. You can make it as flexible as you like so long as it serves as a useful guide to you and your supervising tutor. Inductive research deliberately builds in a reflective process of progressive focusing (see Woods 1992) to allow hypotheses to emerge from the data - if this is what you want to do, say so!
12) For a full discussion have a look at the CD-Rom Signposts for Educational Research: a Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Barrett et al (1999). I also strongly recommend A Student's Guide to Methodology, Clough & Nutbrown (2002) - see in particular chapter seven on 'Research Design: shaping the Study', which contains a very useful template for a 'research planning audit'. For research degree students (MPhil/PhD) in particular, the following website hosted by the University of Queensland in Australia is well worth a visit if you are looking for help with a research proposal:
http://www.sss.uq.edu.au/linkto/phdwriting/
The FAQ page is especially useful.
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UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH
| NB Some, but by no means all, of the services listed below are only available to staff and students who have access to University of Plymouth provision, ie where UoP user names and passwords are required. If you are unable to obtain these you may be able to get your own institution to subscribe to the facilities directly. |
1) The UoP's Information and Learning Services have provided the following sets of guidance notes (click on the title to access):
If you have any queries about any of the above, please contact Rosemary Smith via r.smith@plymouth.ac.uk
COLLEGE OF ST MARK & ST JOHN
MARJON's library website may be accessed at:
http://librarygateway.marjon.ac.uk
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1) What do we mean by ‘paradigm’?
2) See Bassey (1988), 'A research paradigm is a network of coherent ideas about the nature of the world and of the functions of researchers which, adhered to by a group of researchers, conditions the patterns of their thinking and underpins their research actions' (p 8).
3) This implies that the approach taken is based on a model where certain assumptions are made, that the research asks the sorts of questions which arise from particular judgements about the nature of education and the nature of research. I’ll generally keep things simpler by referring to approaches.
4) For a fuller discussion or research paradigms/approaches in education, I strongly recommend this CD-ROM:
Barrett, Elizabeth; Lally, Vic; Purcell, S & Thresh, Robert (1999) Signposts for Educational Research CD-ROM: A Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher. Sage Publications, London.
This includes several accounts from Masters and research degree students on beginning research, choosing methods of data collection, analysis and writing up as well as statements from eminent professors on the nature of education research and research methodology. See in particular the section on 'Research Methodology', accessed via 'Travellers' Tales' on the world map and the sections on 'The Nature of Education Research', 'Quantitative and Qualitative Data' and 'Approaches and Methods' via 'Reconnaissance'. 20 copies of the CD-ROM are held by the Exmouth branch of the University of Plymouth library and are available for loan.
5) For a critique of empirical research from a postmodernist perspective and ideas about alternative approaches see the RESINED component Education Research in the Postmodern.
6) Let’s look at the sorts of disciplinary approaches available (the points of criticism are meant to be provocative!):-
a) Philosophical & conceptual
Huge variety! See Journal of Philosophy of Education at http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journals/jope/
Strengths - conceptual clarity, examines claims made.
Weaknesses - parasitical, doesn’t often provide new data, assumes certain empirical findings.
Shouldn’t philosophical questions be a necessary part of all research?
b) Historical
Again, great variety - documentary analysis, reminiscences, local, national and international.
Strengths - puts present in context, explains present, recalls lessons previously learnt.
Weaknesses - doesn’t really explain why some aspects of the past have survived in the present (which would require an analysis of the present), often an escape from immediate concerns.
Shouldn’t historical questions be a necessary part of all research?
c) Sociological
It is possible to distinguish macro and micro varieties:
macro - large scale such as surveys of the correlation between social class and education attainment;
micro - small scale such as case studies of the micro politics of education and studies of classroom interaction.
Strengths and weaknesses:- Macro can see the whole picture which makes generalisation possible, but you can’t pick out the detail relevant to your unique instance. Micro more sensitive to particular circumstances and flexible enough to monitor the process of change but difficult to interpret the wider significance of the findings.
d) Psychological & social psychological
Guided by whole range of theoretical insights such as behaviourist, humanist, interactionist, Freudian, Gestalt, etc.
Big differences between psychometric tradition with strong emphasis on experimental methods, measurements and testing and a humanistic approach which makes more use of interviews, observation and classroom analysis.
Strengths - often a crucial contribution to understanding what makes people tick, theories of learning, etc.
Weaknesses - often focused on the individual, underestimates social structure.
e) Curriculum research/action research
See Stenhouse (1975) etc. Research by not on teachers.
Strengths - accessible, relevant.
Weaknesses - often conceptually naive, subjective.
For a full discussion see the RESINED component Action Research in Education.
7) A lot of education research is done by academics whose first point of reference is their disciplines and who are keen to train teachers and researchers into those disciplines.
8) It is also done by teachers as part of their work, not necessarily for publication or a certificate, and by all sorts of other bodies including the mass media, government departments, etc.
9) Which approach is appropriate? The answer depends very much on the issue being considered. The method should fit the question rather than vice versa. For a full discussion have a look at the CD-Rom Signposts for Educational Research: a Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Barrett et al (1999).
10) It is also possible to investigate the same topic by different routes, which may be complementary. For example:-
What do we mean by 'disability'?
Could be:
philosophical - looking at statements about the nature of the concept;
historical - study of the development of the term and its application;
sociological - a study of students with similar 'disabilities' in different sorts of schools (special, mainstream, inclusive, etc) to see to what extent their 'disability' is a product of inappropriate provision;
psychological - a study of the effects on student self-esteem of being labelled as in need of special provision ('statemented');
action research - evaluation of attempts to implement an inclusive curriculum and pedagogy to meet the needs of differently abled students.
11) Within a broadly social scientific approach, you can talk about a variety of techniques:-
Quantitative - surveys, questionnaires, experiments, tests, correlations, samples, control groups, multivariate analysis. See the Quantitative Methods in Education Research component.
Qualitative - field study, participant and non-participant observation, case study, interview. See the Qualitative Research component
12) Always there is a need to pick an approach to address the issue at hand, to place the topic in a wider theoretical perspective with reference to other research, and to get reliable data which can be presented as evidence.
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For a full discussion of all the issues concerning the ethics of education research see the presentation from Andy Hobson and Andy Townsend of the University of Nottingham by clicking here.
UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH
The University of Plymouth has decided to take very seriously the whole business of the ethics of research involving human participants. All staff and students of the University undertaking such research have to confirm to a set of 'ethical principles', which are given below (with added extra guidance in brackets):
UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH
RESEARCH POLICY COMMITTEE
Ethical principles for research involving human participants
(March 1995)
1. Informed consent
The researcher should, where possible, inform potential participants in advance of any features of the research that might reasonably be expected to influence their willingness to take part in the study.
Where the research topic is sensitive, the ethical protocol should include verbatim instructions for the informed consent procedure and consent should be obtained in writing.
Where children are concerned, informed consent may be obtained from parents or teachers acting in loco parentis, or from the children themselves if they are of sufficient understanding. However, where the topic of research is sensitive, written informed consent should be obtained from individual parents.
(Beware of telling those you aim to study so much about your focus that you make the study itself impossible, ie be honest about what you will be looking at, but don't give away everything in terms of what you are looking for. Avoid giving so much detail that you risk influencing the behaviour of those you may wish to observe, but see point 2 below. The ethics protocol itself can usefully serve as a means of setting out the nature of your research and thus of obtaining the informed consent required.)
2. Openness and honesty
So far as possible, researchers should be open and honest about the research, its purpose and application.
Some types of research appear to require deception in order to achieve their scientific purpose. Deceptions will be approved in experimental procedures only if the following conditions are met:
a. Deception is completely unavoidable if the purpose of the research is to be achieved.
b. The research objective has strong merit.
c. Any potential harm arising from the proposed deception can be effectively neutralised or reversed by the proposed debriefing procedures (see section 5).
Failing to inform participants of the specific purpose of the study at the outset is not normally considered to be deception, provided that adequate informed consent and debriefing procedures are proposed.
Covert observation should be resorted to only where it is impossible to use other methods to obtain essential data. Ideally, where informed consent has not been obtained prior to the research it should be obtained post hoc.
(This principle is very important. However, unless you aim to deceive it is usually not necessary to be explicit about meeting its requirements.)
3. Right to withdraw
Where possible, participants should be informed at the outset of the study that they have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty.
In the case of children, those acting in loco parentis or the children themselves if of sufficient understanding, shall be informed of the rights to withdraw from participation in the study.
(This principle has been designed with experiments and interviews in mind, rather than questionnaire surveys. In the latter, the potential respondent should be given the choice not to reply to any particular item or, indeed, the survey as a whole.)
4. Protection from harm
Researchers must endeavour to protect participants from physical and psychological harm at all times during the investigation.
Note that where stressful or hazardous procedures are concerned, obtaining informed consent (1) whilst essential, does not absolve the researcher from responsibility for protecting the participant. In such cases, the ethical protocol must specify the means by which the participant will be protected, e.g. by the availability of qualified medical assistance.
Where physical or mental harm nevertheless does result from research procedure, investigators are obliged to take action to remedy the problems created.
(Inappropriate use of the information collected may be harmful in its consequences, eg breaching confidentiality, providing unwanted publicity, etc. Researchers have to take care not to damage their informants.)
5. Debriefing
Researchers should, where possible, provide an account of the purpose of the study as well as its procedures. If this is not possible at the outset, then ideally it should be provided on completion of the study.
(This should be understood so as to include feeding back the results to your informants, ie providing them with the fruits of your labours so that they might benefit from what you have learnt. Without feedback of this kind research is merely parasitical, providing you with a qualification but not paying back those who give you their time and energy. Research is best seen as a partnership between researchers and researched. If you promise feedback you have something positive to offer those you intend to research in terms of findings that may influence future policy and practice. Beware though of the problems of reconciling this requirement with promises about confidentiality and don't feel that you have give a full report to all and sundry - use summaries and give the opportunity for feedback rather than giving it regardless of need.)
6. Confidentiality
Except with the consent of the participant, researchers are required to ensure confidentiality of the participant’s identity and data throughout the conduct and reporting of the research.
Ethical protocols may need to specify procedures for how this will be achieved. For example, transcriptions of the interviews may be encoded by the secretary so that no written record of the participant’s name and data exist side by side. Where records are held on computer, the Data Protection Act also applies.
(This is often a problematic area. Don't promise too much, but do follow the procedures you agree in advance. You may wish to involve informants in a process of 'triangulation', getting them to check your accounts and asking for their permission to use these. You may wish to set up a 'gatekeeping' system whereby you indicate whose permission you need. Generally, anonymity is best, with detailed systems for obtaining approval only necessary if the sources can be identified. In general, however, the principle of protecting your sources prevails. Don't forget that 'insiders' can usually identify sources better than 'outsiders'!)
7. Ethical principles of professional bodies
This set of principles is generic and not exhaustive of considerations which apply in all disciplines. Where relevant professional bodies have published their own guidelines and principles, these must be followed and the current principles interpreted and extended as necessary in this context.
(See the British Educational Research Association Ethical Guidelines.)
The IMP (Education) has obtained 'programmatic clearance' to apply the procedures set out below to ensure that the University guidelines are followed:
1) The University document on ‘Ethical principles for research involving human participants’ will be made available to each student.
2) Where appropriate, students will be asked by their supervising tutor to prepare an ‘ethics protocol’ as part of their preparation for assignments (those involving field work/data collection). That protocol will set out how the student intends to meet the requirements set out in the University guidelines.
3) Guidance on how to construct such a statement will be provided by the supervising tutor.
4) The supervising tutor will be responsible for obtaining a copy of the protocol, for ensuring that it is satisfactory and for monitoring its implementation.
5) Assessment of the final project will take into account the manner in which the protocol was put into effect.
| In essence, then, students need to consult the University guidelines and produce a statement which sets out how they intend to ensure compliance with each of the principles therein (viz, 'informed consent', 'openness and honesty', 'right to withdraw', 'protection from harm', 'debriefing' and 'confidentiality'). Your 'ethics protocol' should set out how your study will meet these requirements WHERE RELEVANT. Some of these principles will be of greater importance than others for you and this should be reflected in your statement. I STRONGLY RECOMMEND that the 'ethics protocol' for which you seek approval should take the form of the document you intend to issue to potential participants in order to obtain informed consent, which would cover issues such as confidentiality, right to withdraw, feedback, etc as appropriate. The examples referred to below are statements of this kind. NB For a QUESTIONNAIRE survey it is often preferable to incorporate the ethical provisions in the introduction to the questionnaire form itself, ie telling informants what the project is about (informed consent), giving them the choice not to respond to individual items or the form as a whole (right to withdraw), setting out how feedback may be obtained (debriefing), describing the provisions for confidentiality (particularly if the form is not anonymous), etc. This section of the questionnaire is in effect the 'ethics protocol' and can be submitted for approval. |
Have a look at the ethics protocols for the project 'Innovations in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education'. These were sent to all those interviewed in advance and were discussed with institutional 'gatekeepers' in order to help obtain access. An ethics protocol ought to be used for such purposes, rather than be seen as a 'dead' document written merely in response to bureaucratic requirements. In essence it is a contract that you enter into with your informants that contains protections for you both!
You can find four more examples of ethics protocols for a range of research projects produced by Sue Waite, a Research Fellow in the Faculty of Education of the University of Plymouth, by clicking here.
For a discussion of the ethical issues involved in undertaking ethnographic research generally, see the chapter on 'Ethics' (click the title to follow a link to a downloadable pdf file) from the book by Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1995) Ethnography: Principles in Practice, Second Edition, London, Routledge.
For a bibliography on medical ethics, much of which is relevant to education, visit Ethical Issues in Research Involving Human Participants.
COLLEGE OF ST MARK & ST JOHN
For information regarding the College of St. Mark and St. John’s regulations concerning postgraduate study, including research, please see www.ex.ac.uk/admin/academic/tls/tqa/index.htm#contents
There is also a handbook for all Taught Masters programmes at the College which is available on request from the CPD office: 01752 636824.
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The Dissertation Proposal form for the University of Plymouth MA (Education) may be obtained by clicking here and guidance on how to complete it may be obtained by clicking here. The Research in Education module is assessed by means of the Dissertation Proposal. You should discuss the completion of this form with your Dissertation Supervisor and then submit it to him/her to be marked. He/she will then send it to the Research in Education module leader, Nick Pratt, for second marking.
College of St Mark & St John MEd (Professional Development) students should contact Jim Christophers at jchristophers@marjon.ac.uk or the CPD office on 01752 636824 for a copy of the form they should use.
University of Plymouth MPhil/PhD students click here to find to find the guidance and forms that you need.
It's also a good idea to see what's expected of you when you eventually write up your study. See the component on Writing Up Research for details.
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(NB Only for those University of Plymouth students undertaking the ‘Research in Education’ module as part of the preparation for the submission of a MA dissertation proposal)
TASK A (NATURE OF EDUCATION RESEARCH)
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Think about your own research project. Try and identify the research approach or paradigm you have adopted. |
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Read the appropriate chapters of one of the recommended books (Denscombe 2003, Bell 1999, Clough & Nutbrown 2002 or Cohen et al 2007), consult relevant sections of the CD-Rom Signposts for Educational Research: a Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher, Barrett et al (1999), and of The Research Methods Knowledge Base website, Trochim (2000). |
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Explain and justify your own project's methodology. |
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Send your response to Nick Pratt by email attachment. |
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I’ll get back to you with some comments and advice. |
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The books picked out in bold below are those I'd most strongly recommend as general readers. By all means look at all four, but one of them should be enough!
Altrichter, H; Posch, P & Somekh, B (1993) Teachers Investigate Their Work, London, Routledge
Bassey, M (1995) Creating Education Through Research, Newark, Kirklington Moor Press/Edinburgh, BERA
Bassey, M (1988) On the Nature of Research in Education, Nottingham, Nottingham Trent University
Bell, J (1999) Doing Your Research Project (3rd edition), Buckingham, OUP
Burgess, R (ed) (1993) The Research Process in Educational Settings, Lewes, Falmer
Burgess, R (ed) (1985) Issues in Educational Research, Lewes, Falmer
Clough, P & Nutbrown, C (2002) A Student's Guide to Methodology, London, SAGE
Cohen, L ; Manion, L & Morrison, K (2007) Research Methods in Education (6th edition), London, Routledge
Delamont, S (1991) Fieldwork in Educational Settings, Lewes, Falmer
Denscombe, M (2003) The Good Research Guide, Buckingham, OUP
Edwards, A & Westgate, D (1994) Investigating Classroom Talk (2nd ed), Lewes, Falmer
Garner, P; Hinchcliffe, V & Sandow, S (1995) What Teachers Do: Developments in Special Education, London, Paul Chapman
Hammersley, M & Atkinson, P (1995) Ethnography: Principles in Practice (2nd ed), London, Routledge
Hammersley, M (ed) (1993) Educational Research: Current Issues (vol 1), London, Paul Chapman
Hopkins, D (1993) A Teacher's Guide to Classroom Research (2nd ed), Buckingham, OUP
Hustler, D et al (eds) (1986) Action Research in Classrooms and Schools, London, Allen & Unwin
May, T (1993) Social Research: Issues, Methods and Process, Buckingham, OUP McNeil, P (1990) Research Methods (2nd ed), London, Routledge
Miles, M & Huberman, A (1994) Qualitative Data Analysis (2nd ed), London, Sage
Mortimore, P et al (1988) School Matters, London, Open Books Nixon, J (ed) (1981) A Teacher's Guide to Action Research, London, Grant McIntyre
Shipman, M (ed) (1985) Educational Research (3rd ed), Lewes, FalmerShipman, M (1988) The Limitations of Social Research, Harlow, Longman
Skinner, C & Allan, G (1991) Handbook for Research Students in the Social Sciences, Lewes, Falmer
Smeaton, R F (1999) Researching Education: Reference Tools and Networks, Hull, LISE
Stenhouse, L (1975) An Introduction to Curriculum Research and Development, London, Heinemann
Tizard, B et al (1988) Young Children at School in the Inner City, Hove, Lawrence Erlbaum
Walker, R (1985) Doing Research: A Handbook for Teachers, London, Methuen
Webb, R (ed) (1990) Practitioner Research in the Primary School, Lewes, Falmer
Woods P (1992) Inside Schools, London, Routledge
http://www.cf.ac.uk/socsi/capacity/References.html
Barrett, Elizabeth; Lally, Vic; Purcell, S & Thresh, Robert (1999) Signposts for Educational Research CD-ROM: A Multimedia Resource for the Beginning Researcher. Sage Publications, London.
(This CD-ROM is very strongly recommended. It includes several accounts from Masters and research degree students on beginning research, choosing methods of data collection, analysis and writing up as well as statements from eminent professors on the nature of education research and research methodology. 20 copies are held by the Exmouth branch of the University of Plymouth library and are available for loan.)
Trochim, William M. The Research Methods Knowledge Base, 2nd Edition. Internet WWW page, at URL: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/index.htm (version current as of September 9, 2003). (This is the excellent site referred [and linked] to several times in the sections presented above.)
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______________________________________________________________________________________________
Beginning Research | Action Research | Case Study | Interviews | Observation Techniques | Education Research in the Postmodern
Evaluation Research in Education | Narrative| Presentations | Qualitative Research | Quantitative Methods | Questionnaires | Writing up Research
© A Hannan, Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth, 2006
